His Excellency Leonardo Marin-Saavedra was born in the municipality of Puerto Nare, Antioquia, Republic of Colombia (South America) on December 17 (1955). His Beatitude is Canadian citizen since 2000. He was baptized by the Roman Rite by the Presbyter Carlos Arturo Duque-Ramirez on January 8 (1956), in the Parish San Luis Beltrán of Puerto Nare (Antioquia), and registered by his parents civilly in the Mayor's Office of Floridablanca, Department of Santander, Republic of Colombia on August 30 (1956). He was confirmed by the Roman Rite in the city of Madrid on August 7, 1970. Legitimate son of Francisco Antonio Marín-Aguilar (Marún-Morón), and Zoraida Saavedra-Silva. Maternal Grandparents: Luis Felipe Saavedra-Rodríguez and Maria de la Cruz Silva-Rueda. Paternal Grandparents: Francisco Antonio Marin (Marún)-Morón and María Alejandrina Aguilar-Moros. His biological parents contracted holy marriage for the Roman Rite on 25 December (1948), in the Parish of the Sacred Heart of Jesus of the city of Barrancabermeja, Department of Santander, Republic of Colombia. Occupation religious ceremony priest José Arango-Uribe (SJ). They were godparents of the wedding: Juan de Dios Rueda-Silva and Sara Saavedra-Silva.
When the man of God Leonardo reached his 20th birthday, he made vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, and gave his life to Christ by entering the Missionary Order of the Anglican Missionaries Monks of San Lawrence (1975). He was ordained Deacon on August 7 (1987), and Priest on December 8 (1988), in the city of Bogotá, Capital of Republic of Colombia. On July 21 (1997), in the city of Medellín, Department of Antioquia, Colombia, Bishop Juan Bautista García-Germain from Puerto Rico and Delegate for the Anglican Church in America (ACA) on its faith a 'Sub Conditional" Priestly Ordination to officially incorporate it into the Anglican Continent Movement of the Americas and support its mission for the Christian world. His Excellency was consecrate as Bishop on 15 June, 2003 in Huntington Beach city, California, United States of North America. On December 17 (2004), in the city of London, England (UK), His Excellency Leonardo was nominated for Archbishop dignity by the Independent Anglican Communion of Europe. On July 21 (2005), in New York City (NY), United States, he was elevated in a private ceremony as Anglo-Catholic Primate Archbishop by the Orthodox Anglican Communion of the United States, England and Canada. Your marital status: Single forever (celibate). If he falls in love and God sends him a woman as his wife-mate, His Beatitude can break the vows of chastity and marry. The civil status of celibacy in any branch of Anglicanism is optional and is not for life. Every man or woman has the right to fully develop their own sexuality freely without consulting a perverse Sanhedrin Inquisitor. Brother Leonardo Marin-Saavedra has a Degree in Philosophy, Bachelor of Theology, Bachelor of Arts in Spanish and Literature, Doctor of Philosophy, Doctor of Theology, Doctor of Divinity, Degree in Drama and Doctor of Business Administration. He has a Degree in Communications and Computer Technology. He work as a teacher at all levels including the university for more than 25 consecutive years. His Excellency is Spanish Writer and Classic Dramatist into civil life.
Marin-Saavedra Leonardo Ancestry (DNA)
Leonardo Marin-Saavedra DNA: European: 48%. America (Native
American): 37%. African: 13%. Hebrew: 1% and British: 1%. This is a medical scientific study conducted of the Archbishop Leonardo by (made from United States): USA Ancestry
Europe: 48%. (Iberian Peninsula: 28%. Italy and Greece: 12%. Europe
West: 3%. Great Britain: 3%. And European Jewish: 2%). Iberian
Peninsula: Primarily located
in: Spain and Portugal. Also found in: France, Morocco, Algeria and Italy. Separated from the rest of continental Europe by the
Pyrenees Mountains, the Iberian Peninsula lies between the Mediterranean Sea
and the Atlantic Ocean. Gibraltar, at the peninsula’s southern tip, is just a
little over nine miles from the north coast of Africa. This proximity would
play a major part in the history and identity of Spain and Portugal. How Leonardo
Marin-Saavedra compares to the typical person native to the Iberian Peninsula
region? Leonardo Marin-Saavedra: 28%. Typical native: 51%.
Genetic Diversity in the Iberian Peninsula Region:
The people living in
the Iberian Peninsula region are fairly admixed, which means that when creating
genetic ethnicity estimates for people native to this area, we see similarities
to DNA profiles from other nearby regions. We’ve found that approximately 51%
of the typical native’s DNA comes from this region. Examples
of people native to the Iberian Peninsula region:
From a collection of
125 people…
100%.
100%.
51%.
39%.
19%.
Other regions commonly seen in
people native to the Iberian Peninsula region:
From a collection of 125 people - Region
% of natives that have this region.
Italy and Greece: 69%. Great Britain: 38%. Ireland: 33%. Africa North: 20%. Europe West: 18%. Europe East: 6%. Scandinavia: 6%. Middle East: 3%. Finland and Northwest
Russia:
2%. Native American: 1%. European Jewish: 1%.
We have used our reference panel to build a genetic
profile for the Iberian Peninsula. The blue chart above shows examples of
ethnicity estimates for people native to this region. For the Iberian
Peninsula, we see a fairly wide range of results. Some natives have only 19% of
their DNA showing similarity to this profile, while there is a larger group
which shows 100% similarity. Since approximately 51% of the typical native’s
DNA comes from this region, 49% is more similar to surrounding areas such as
the Italy/Greece region (see chart above, in green).
Population History (People of prehistoric Iberia):
The Iberian Peninsula has been inhabited for more than
a million years, from the Paleolithic Cro-Magnon and Neanderthals to modern
Homo sapiens. A number of Iberian civilizations had developed by the Bronze Age
and were trading with other Mediterranean communities. Celtic tribes arrived
from central Europe and settled in the northern and western parts of the
peninsula, intermixing with the local populations. Phoenician colonies (later
controlled by the powerful Carthaginians) dotted the Mediterranean coast. The
Greeks named the region “Iberia,” after the Ebro River.
Bronze Age Iberia showing Celtic and Iberian tribes.
Tartessian
(residual), Celtic – Turdetanian. Aquitanian... Indo-European (pre-Celtic), Iberian.
Romanization:
The Carthaginians were the naval
superpower of their day, controlling most of the maritime trade in the western
Mediterranean. They ran afoul of the growing Roman Empire in the 3rd century
B.C., however. Local disputes between city-states in Sicily escalated into a
broader conflict between the two empires, triggering the Punic Wars (264 B.C.
to 146 B.C.).
Iberia was a major source of manpower and revenue for
the Carthaginian military, which relied heavily on mercenary soldiers. The
great Carthaginian general, Hannibal, led the Iberian forces in a surprise
assault on northern Italy—and even Rome itself—by marching his armies,
including several dozen war elephants, over the Alps. Although Hannibal was a
brilliant strategist and won several victories against the Romans, his invasion
ultimately failed. He was forced to retreat to Carthage and the Iberian
colonies and territories that had been controlled by Carthage then became a
province of the Roman Empire, known as Hispania.
Hannibal's Elephants by French artist Nicolas Poussin
Rome launched a number of campaigns to conquer the
remainder of the peninsula, bringing most of the region under Roman rule. Latin
replaced almost all of the locally spoken languages and eventually evolved into
modern Spanish and Portuguese. One exception is the Basque language, which
survived in the remote foothills of the Pyrenees. Many scholars believe Basque
pre-dates the arrival of the Indo-European languages, brought by the Celtic and
Iberian tribes during the Bronze Age.
Germanic Visigoth kingdom:
The Migration Period,
or Völkerwanderung, was a vast movement of primarily Germanic tribes throughout
Europe, beginning around 400 A.D. These wandering tribes completely transformed
central and western Europe, conquering and displacing populations over the
course of centuries. The Roman Empire had already been divided into two parts,
with the emperor ruling from the new eastern capital in Byzantium. The Western
Empire, including Rome itself, was overrun by successive waves of Germanic invaders,
including the Visigoths and the Vandals. The Visigoths continued west from
Italy and established the Visigoth Kingdom, which occupied the majority of the
Iberian Peninsula. They converted to Catholicism around 589 A.D. and were
completely assimilated by the indigenous Hispano-Roman population, as evidenced
by the loss of the Gothic language and a lack of any substantial genetic
difference between the groups.
Visigoth Kingdom, 600 A.D.
North Africa remained part of the Roman and Byzantine Empires for
centuries after the defeat of Carthage. But in the late 7th century, the region
was conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate, a vast Muslim empire based in Syria.
The North African Muslims consisted mostly of indigenous Berbers and an Arab minority,
collectively called "Moors" by the Europeans.
In 711 A.D., the Moors crossed the Strait of Gibraltar
and conquered the Visigoth Kingdom and most of Iberia, forcing the Christian
Visigoths to retreat to the northern part of the peninsula. Iberia became a
province of the Umayyad Caliphate called Al-Andalus. While many converted to
Islam and adopted the Arabic language, the majority of the population remained
Christian and spoke Latin.
Illustration of Tariq ibn Ziyad: A Muslim general who
led the Islamic conquest of Visigothic Hispania in 711-718 A.D. He is
considered to be one of the most important military commanders in Iberian
history.
The duration of Muslim rule varied, lasting only a few
decades in the north and nearly 800 years in the south. Al-Andalus broke away
from the Caliphate after the overthrow of the Umayyads in Syria and became an
independent emirate ruled by a succession of Muslim dynasties. From 722 to
1492, the Christian kingdoms of the north relentlessly fought to regain control
of the peninsula in a campaign called “the Reconquista” (or re-conquest), but
they made limited headway until the 13th century. By then, Muslim rule had
fractured into a number of smaller, competing emirates, which made them more
vulnerable.
Age of discovery:
In 1469, the Christian Kingdoms
of Leon, Castile, and Aragon were brought together by the marriage of Queen
Isabella and King Ferdinand II. Although the thrones technically remained
separate, their royal union created a new political entity, España (spain),
laying the foundation for the modern Kingdom of Spain. Portugal was also
established as a distinct country at this time, and the boundaries between the
two nations have remained virtually unchanged since then.
The year 1492 was especially busy for Ferdinand and
Isabella. They issued the “Alhambra Decree,” which expelled all Jews from
Spain, scattering them throughout the Mediterranean, Europe and the Middle
East. They also defeated the last Muslim stronghold at Grenada, bringing an end
to the Reconquista. In addition, Ferdinand and Isabella financed the first
voyage of Christopher Columbus to the New World, beginning a period of
exploration, colonization and exploitation of the Americas. Called the Age of
Discovery, it led to immense wealth and power for Spain, as they became an
unmatched maritime power and extracted gold, silver and other resources from
their colonies across the Atlantic. To this day, Spanish remains the second
most widely spoken language in the world. Portugal kept pace with its
neighbors, establishing the first trade route around the southern tip of
Africa, as well as numerous colonies, including Brazil.
Columbus before the Queen by Emanuel Gottileb Leutze
Did You Know?
The Portuguese explorer, Bartholomew
Dias, was the first European to sail around the southern tip of Africa. He
named it the "Cape of Storms," but it is now called the Cape of Good
Hope.
Italy and Greece: 12%: Primarily
located In Italy and Greece. Also
found in: France, Switzerland,
Portugal, Spain, Serbia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Austria, Croatia, Bosnia, Romania,
Turkey, Slovenia, Algeria, Tunisia, Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia and Kosovo. Located in the south of Europe, against the Mediterranean Sea, this
region gave rise to some of the most iconic and powerful cultures the Western
world has known. The Greeks were first, with their pantheon of gods, legendary
heroes, philosophers and artists. They subsequently influenced the Romans,
whose vast empire spread its ideas and language across Europe.
How Leonardo Marin-Saavedra
compares to the typical person native to the Italy/Greece region?
Leonardo Marin-Saavedra: 12%. Typical native: 72%.
Genetic Diversity in the
Italy/Greece Region:
The
people living in the Italy/Greece region are admixed, which means that when
creating genetic ethnicity estimates for individual’s native to this area, we
frequently see some similarities to DNA profiles from other nearby regions.
We’ve found that approximately 72% of the typical native’s DNA comes from this
region.
Examples of people native to the
Italy/Greece region:
From a collection of 205 people…
100%. 81%. 72%. 65%. 3%.
Other regions commonly seen in
people native to the Italy and Greece region:
From a collection of
205 people: Region % of natives that have this region: Caucasus: 47%. Middle East: 41%. Iberian Peninsula:
25%. Europe West: 17%. Great
Britain: 15%. Europe East: 14%. Ireland: 11%. European Jewish: 10%. Scandinavia: 8%. Finland/Northwest Russia: 1%.
We have used our reference panel to build a genetic
profile for Italy/Greece. The blue chart above shows examples of ethnicity
estimates for people native to this region. Most Italy/Greece natives have
between 65% and 100% of their DNA showing similarity to this profile. It’s also
possible, however, to find people whose DNA shows very little similarity. Since
approximately 72% of the typical native’s DNA comes from this region, 28% of
his or her DNA is more similar to other regions, such as the Caucasus, Middle
East, Iberian Peninsula, and Europe West.
Population History (Prehistoric Italy/Greece):
The history of this region is
dominated by two titans: the Greeks and the Romans. During the height of the
Classical Era, the Greeks introduced cultural, civic and philosophical ideas
and innovations that heavily influenced the Roman Empire and, in turn, laid the
foundations of Western civilization. Ancient Greece was settled by four
different Greek-speaking groups. During the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greece of
Homer's epics consisted of the Achaeans, Aeolians and Ionians. It was one of
the great powers of its time. The remaining group, the Dorians, rose to
prominence around 1100 B.C. when the Mycenaean civilization collapsed. The influence
of these groups spread beyond mainland Greece to the western coastline of
modern Turkey and the islands of the Aegean Sea.
Distribution of ancient Greek tribes: Achaean and Arcadian
- Dorian - Aeolian - Ionian.
The Greeks also founded colonies in southern Italy and
Sicily. Called Magna Graecia in Latin, these settlements existed alongside the
native tribes of the Italian peninsula, including the Etruscans, Umbrian’s and
Latins. The Latins would later build their capital in Rome, drawing heavily on
the culture of their Greek neighbors.
Colonies of Italy and Greece:
Besides Sicily and southern
Italy, the Greeks established many more colonies around the Mediterranean, from
approximately 750 B.C. until 500 B.C., established as small city-states, most
of these colonies were trading outposts. Others were created by refugees when
Greek cities were overrun and the displaced inhabitants looked for new land.
More than 90 Greek colonies were established, from Ukraine and Russia to the
north, Turkey to the east, southern Spain in the west, and Egypt and Libya in
the south.
The Classical Age of Greece began around the 5th
century B.C. It was the era of Athens, Sparta, the birth of democracy, and many
of Greece’s famous playwrights and philosophers. After two bloody wars with the
Persian Empire, Athens and Sparta went to war with each other, leading to the
eventual decline of both. The Macedonian king, Philip II, united the Greek
city-states in 338 B.C. After Philip’s assassination, his son, Alexander the
Great, became king of Macedonia and carried out his father’s plans to invade
Persia. Alexander led his armies in conquest of the Middle East, part of India,
and Egypt, spreading the Greek language and culture throughout much of the
ancient world.
Phillip II, king of Macedonia. The Granger Collection,
New York.
Alexander the Great - Detail of The Alexander Mosaic.
His triumph was short-lived, however; he died on his
campaign and his conquered territories were divided among his generals. But
many important Greek cities and colonies were established and remained under
Greek rule, including Seleucia, Antioch and Alexandria.
Division of Alexander's Empire Ptolemaic Kingdom - Seleucid
Empire - Kingdom of Pergamon - Macedonia. Epirus - Other Territories - Roman
Republic - Carthaginian Republic - Epirus-controlled territory.
While Greece spread its influence eastward, the small
city of Rome was growing into a regional power in Italy. As the Roman Republic
expanded, it established colonies of Roman citizens to maintain control of
newly conquered lands. By the time Julius Caesar seized power from the Senate,
the Roman war machine was nearly unstoppable. Soldiers who served for years in
the military were rewarded with land in Roman colonies throughout the empire,
which stretched from Turkey and the Middle East to Spain and northern France.
Invasion of the barbarians:
During the late Roman Empire, Constantine the Great
established Constantinople as the eastern capital of the Roman Empire. The
Empire was divided and, as the focus of power shifted away from Rome, the
Western Empire was left vulnerable to a series of invasions by Goths, Huns,
Visigoths and Heruli. In 476 B.C. a Germanic soldier, Odoacer, deposed the last
Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, signaling the fall of the old Roman
Empire. The Eastern Empire continued to flourish, becoming known as the
Byzantine Empire. Odoacer was soon murdered by the Ostrogoth ruler Theodoric.
Although the barbarians had seized Rome, they never established a major
settlement in Italy.
Romulus Augustulus resigns the Crown before Odoacer.
Project Gutenberg's Young Folks' History of Rome by Charlotte Mary Yonge
From around 610 A.D. to 867 A.D., the Byzantine Empire
was attacked by numerous groups, including the Persians, Lombards, Avars,
Slavs, Arabs, Normans, Franks, Goths and Bulgars. During the 8th and 9th
centuries, the empire slowly freed Greece from these invaders. The Slavs had
the most success at establishing permanent settlements in Greece, although
they, too, were eventually defeated and banished from the Greek peninsula. During
this time, Greek-speaking people from Sicily and Asia Minor migrated to Greece,
and a large number of Sephardic Jews emigrated from Spain to Greece, as well.
The Ottoman Empire conquered the Byzantine Empire,
expanding through Greece and capturing Athens in 1458. Many of the Greek
scholars fled and migrated to Christian Western Europe. Ottoman colonies were
established in several areas in Greece, and held on until Greek independence
was declared in 1821.
The Battle of Maniaki during the Greek War of
Independence from the Ottoman Empire
Italy in
the Middle Ages:
During the 12th and 13th centuries, the city-states of Italy developed
trading and banking institutions. They established a wealth of trading
relationships with the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic powers, all around the
Mediterranean. The escalation in trade leads to a resurgence of financial power
in Italy, allowing it to create Italian colonies as far away as the Black Sea.
Did You Know?
Togas weren’t worn by everyone in
ancient Rome. After the 2nd century B.C., only freeborn Roman men were allowed
to wear them as a symbol of their citizenship. The Greeks were the first to
develop an alphabet with vowels and it has been used to write the Greek
language since 800 B.C.
An inscription showing the Greek alphabet
Europe West:
Primarily located in Belgium,
France, Germany, Netherlands, Switzerland, Luxembourg and Liechtenstein. Also
found in: England,
Denmark, Italy, Slovenia and Czech Republic.
The
Europe West region is a broad expanse stretching from Amsterdam's sea-level
metropolis to the majestic peaks of the Alps. Geographically dominated by
France in the west and Germany in the east, it includes several nations with
distinct cultural identities. From the boisterous beer gardens of Munich to the
sun-soaked vineyards of Bordeaux and the alpine dairy farms of Switzerland, it
is a region of charming cultural diversity.
How Leonardo Marin-Saavedra compares to the typical person native to the Europe West region
Leonardo Marin-Saavedra: 3%. Typical native: 48%.
Genetic Diversity in the Europe West Region:
The people living in the Europe West region are among
the most admixed of all our regions, which means that when creating genetic
ethnicity estimates for people native to this area, we often see similarities
to DNA profiles from other nearby regions. We’ve found that approximately 48%
of the typical native’s DNA comes from this region.
Examples of people native to the
Europe West region
From a collection of
416 people
Other regions commonly seen in
people native to the Europe West region
From a collection of
416 people
Region % of natives that have this region:
Great
Britain: 52%. Scandinavia: 46%. Italy and Greece: 39%. Europe East: 36%. Ireland:
27%. Iberian Peninsula: 23%. Finland, Northwest and Russia: 5%. European Jewish:
2%. Caucasus: 1%.
We have used our reference panel to build a genetic
profile for Europe West. The blue chart above shows examples of ethnicity
estimates for people native to this region. For Europe West we see an extremely
wide range - most natives have between 20% and 68% of their DNA showing
similarity to this region's profile. Some individuals show 100% similarity, but
it’s also possible to find people whose DNA shows little or no similarity. This
is most likely due to the fact that this area has not experienced any long-term
periods of isolation. Since only 48% of the typical native’s DNA comes from
this region, there are major genetic influences from other regions, such as
Great Britain, Scandinavia, Italy/Greece, Europe East and more (see chart
above, in green).
Population History (Prehistoric Western Europe):
Due to its location and geography, Western Europe has
seen many successive waves of immigrants throughout its history. Both peaceful
intermingling and violent invasions of newcomers have resulted in a greater
diversity in the genetics of the population, compared with neighboring regions.
The first major migration into Western Europe is
arguably the Neolithic expansion of farmers who came from the Middle East. From
about 8,000 to 6,000 years ago these farmers filtered in through Turkey and
brought with them wheat, cows and pigs. It is possible; too, that these people
could have been the megalithic cultures who erected enormous stone monuments
like the famous menhirs of Stonehenge. There were dozens, if not hundreds, of
monuments scattered throughout prehistoric Europe, some serving as tombs,
others possibly having astronomical significance.
Photograph of Stonehenge taken in July (1877) by Philip
Rupert Acott.
Owned by Tamsin Titcomb
Celtic and Germanic tribes:
Although “Celtic” is often associated with the people
of Ireland and Scotland, the Celts emerged as a unique culture in central
Europe more than 2,500 years ago. From an epicenter in what is now Austria,
they spread and settled in the areas of today’s western Germany and eastern
France, generally near the Rhine and Danube Rivers. By 450 B.C., their
influence and Celtic languages had spread across most of Western Europe,
including the areas that are now France, the Iberian Peninsula and the British
Isles. The Celts either conquered or assimilated the previous inhabitants of
the area, and almost all languages and cultural and religious customs were
replaced. The only exception, most scholars believe, is the Basque language,
which managed to persist in the Pyrenees of southern France and northern Spain.
In the early 4th century B.C., Celtic tribes in northern Italy invaded and
sacked Rome, setting the stage for centuries of conflict.
In the 5th century B.C., Germanic peoples began moving
south, from Sweden, Denmark and northern Germany, displacing the Celts as they
went. It is unclear what prompted their movement, but it may have been climate
related, as they sought warmer weather and more fertile farmland. The Germanic
tribes’ expansion was checked by the generals, Gaius Marius and Julius Caesar,
as they approached the Roman provinces around 100 B.C.
This map shows the expansion of Celtic tribes by 275
A.D. (in light green) from their presumed origin, the Bronze Age Hallstatt
culture (in yellow). Dark green areas show regions where Celtic languages are
still spoken today.
The Romans:
After Rome defeated Carthage in the Punic Wars, the
Republic had extended its borders to include the entire Italian Peninsula,
Carthage’s territories in North Africa, most of the Iberian Peninsula, Greece
and parts of Anatolia. It began turning its attention northwest toward the
Celtic-dominated region known as Gaul, which more or less covered the area of
modern-day France. Part of Rome’s motivation was to secure its frontier, as
conflict with the Celts was a chronic problem. Julius Caesar led the campaign to
conquer Gaul. A Celtic chieftain, Vercingetorix, assembled a confederation of
tribes and mounted a resistance, but was defeated at the Battle of Alesia in 52
B.C. The battle effectively ended Celtic resistance. The Gaul’s were absorbed
into the Roman Republic and became thoroughly assimilated into Roman culture,
adopting the language, customs, governance and religion of the Empire. Many
generals and even emperors were born in Gaul or came from Gallic families.
Vercingetorix Throws down His Arms at the Feet of
Julius Caesar by Lionel Royer
For the most part, by 400 A.D., Western Europe was
split between the Roman Empire and the restless Germanic tribes to the
northeast. Celtic culture and influence still held sway in parts of the British
Isles, and the Basque language continued to survive in the Pyrenees. It is
interesting to note that the Basque share genetic similarities to the Celts of
Ireland and Scotland, despite being culturally and linguistically dissimilar
and geographically separated. While the exact relationship of the groups is
difficult to determine, this does highlight the interesting interplay between
genetic origin and ethno-linguistic identity.
The Migration Period:
By 400 A.D., the Roman Empire had been split into
pieces. Rome was no longer the heart of the Empire, as the seat of power had
been moved to Byzantium in the east. The Romans had begun to adopt Greek
customs and language as well as Christianity, which had become the official
state religion. Control of the provinces in the west had waned, and Rome itself
was militarily weakened.
About this time, there was a period of intensified
human migration throughout Europe, called the Migration Period, or the
Völkerwanderung (“migration of peoples” in German). Many of the groups involved
were Germanic tribes, whose expansion had previously been held in check by the
Romans.
To some degree, the earlier Germanic tribes of the
Migration Period, notably the Goths and Vandals, were being pushed west and
south by invasions from the Middle East and Central Asia. The Huns swept across
Eastern Europe, followed by the Avars, Slavs, Bulgars and Alans. These
successive attacks may have been a factor in several waves of population
displacement and resettlement.
Seven large German-speaking tribes—the Visigoths, Ostrogoth’s,
Vandals, Burgundians, Lombards, Saxons and Franks—began pressing aggressively
west into the Roman provinces and, in 410, the Visigoths attacked and sacked
Rome. The western part of the Roman Empire was rapidly overrun as the invaders
swept in, eventually dividing the remainder of the Roman provinces into new,
Germanic kingdoms.
An anachronistic 15th-century miniature depicting the
sack of 410.
The Frankish Kingdom:
The Franks conquered northern Gaul in 486 A.D. and
established an empire under the Merovingian kings, subjugating many of the
other Germanic tribes. Over the course of almost four centuries, a succession
of Frankish kings, including Clovis, Clothar, Pepin and Charlemagne, led
campaigns that greatly expanded Frankish control over Western Europe. Charlemagne's
kingdom covered almost all of France, most of today's Germany, Austria and
northern Italy. On Christmas Day, 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne “Emperor
of the Romans.” This upset the Byzantine emperor, who saw himself as the sole
ruler of the Roman Empire, but by 812, he was forced to accept Charlemagne as
co-emperor.
In 843, Charlemagne's grandsons divided the Frankish
empire into three parts—one for each of them. Charles the Bald received the
western portion, which later became France. Lothair received the central
portion of the empire, called Middle Francia, which stretched from the North
Sea to northern Italy. It included parts of eastern France, western Germany and
the Low Countries. Louis the German received the eastern portion, which
eventually became the high medieval Kingdom of Germany, the largest component
of the Holy Roman Empire.
Statue of Charlemagne. By Agostino Cornacchini (1725)
- Located at St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican.
Division of the Frankish Empire Among Charlemagne's
Grandsons, 843 A.D. Charles the Bald – Lothair
- Louis the German
Additional cultures of note:
In addition to the Basque in the area of the Pyrenees
in southern France, there are a number of other cultures with unique ethnic or
linguistic identities in Western Europe. Among them are the Normans of northern
France. Descended from Viking settlers who arrived sometime during the rule of
the Frankish kings, the Normans controlled a powerful region known as Normandy.
Their territories were subject to the French crown, which countenanced them in
exchange for protecting the northern coast against other Viking raids.
Just to the west of Normandy was Brittany, named after
the Celtic Britons who arrived there from the British Isles in the 5th century.
Some scholars believe that the migration may have been due to the Anglo-Saxon
invasion of England after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Brittany
resisted the Frankish kings and remained independent until 1532. It is one of
the few places where Celtic languages are still spoken.
Did You Know?
Many people think that Henry Ford invented the modern
automobile, but it was two German engineers, Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler,
who each independently came up with the concept around the same time. Teaming
up with a French partner, Emile Roger, Benz was selling cars in Germany and
France by 1888.
Great Britain. Primarily located in England, Scotland and
Wales.
Also
found in: Ireland, France, Germany,
Denmark, Belgium, Netherlands, Switzerland, Austria and Italy.
The
history of Great Britain is often told in terms of the invasions with different
groups of invaders displacing the native population. The Romans, Anglo-Saxon,
Vikings and Normans have all left their mark on Great Britain both politically
and culturally. However, the story of Great Britain is far more complex than
the traditional view of invaders displacing existing populations. In fact
modern studies of British people tend to suggest the earliest populations
continued to exist and adapt and absorb the new arrivals.
How Leonardo Marin-Saavedra
compares to the typical person native to the Great Britain region
Leonardo Marin-Saavedra: 3%. Typical
native: 60%
Genetic Diversity in the Great
Britain Region
The people living in the Great Britain region today
are more admixed than most other regions, which means that when creating
genetic ethnicity estimates for people native to this area, we often see
similarities to DNA profiles from other nearby regions. We’ve found that
approximately 60% of the typical native’s DNA comes from this region.
Examples
of people native to the Great Britain region
From a collection of 195
people
Other regions commonly seen in people native
to the Great Britain region
From a collection of
195 people
Region % of natives that have this region. Ireland: 55%.
Europe West: 49%. Scandinavia: 45%. Iberian Peninsula: 24%. Italy and Greece: 8%.
Europe East: 4%. Finland and Northwest Russia: 3%. Caucasus: 1%. European
Jewish: 1%.
We have used our reference panel to build a genetic
profile for Great Britain. The blue chart above shows examples of ethnicity
estimates for people native to this region. For Great Britain we see an
extremely wide range—most natives have between 41% and 100% of their DNA
showing similarity to this region. It’s also possible, however, to find people
whose DNA shows very little similarity. Since approximately 60% of the typical
native’s DNA comes from this region, 40% is more similar to other regions, such
as Ireland, Europe West, Scandinavia and the Iberian Peninsula (see chart
above, in green).
Population History (Prehistoric Britain):
At the end of the Last Glacial Maximum, 12,000 years
ago, the sea levels around northern Europe were low enough for Stone Age
hunter-gatherers to cross, on foot, into what are now the islands of Great
Britain. Farming spread to the islands by about 4000 B.C., and the Neolithic
inhabitants erected their remarkable and puzzling stone monuments, including
the famed Stonehenge.
Beginning in about 2500 B.C., successive waves of
tribes settled in the region. These tribes are often termed ‘Celts’, however
that term is an 18th century invention. The Celts were not a nation in any
sense, but a widespread group of tribes that shared a common cultural and
linguistic background. Originating in central Europe, they spread to dominate
most of western Europe, the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula. They even
settled as far away as Anatolia, in modern-day Turkey. Their dominance could
not withstand the rise of the Roman Empire, however.
After defeating the Celts of Gaul (modern-day France,
Luxembourg, Belgium and western areas of Germany and Switzerland), the Romans
invaded the British Isles in 43 A.D. Most of southern Britain was conquered and
occupied over the course of a few decades and became the Roman province of
Britannia. Hadrian’s Wall, in the north of England, marked the approximate
extent of Roman control. Those tribes who were not assimilated into the Roman
Empire were forced to retreat to other areas that remained Celtic, such as
Wales, Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man and Brittany. The Roman presence largely
wiped out most traces of pre-existing culture in England—even replacing the
language with Latin.
The extent of Roman "Britannia" shortly
before the Roman withdrawal
Germanic tribes invade:
With the decline of its Western Empire, Rome largely
withdrew from Britannia in 410 A.D. As the Romans left, tribes from northern
Germany and Denmark seized the opportunity to step in. The Germanic Angles and
Saxons soon controlled much of the territory that had been under Roman rule,
while the Jutes from Denmark occupied some smaller areas in the south. The new
settlers imposed their language and customs on the local inhabitants in much
the same way that the Romans had. The Germanic language spoken by the Angles
would eventually develop into English.
Invasion of Germanic tribes after 410 A.D. - Jutes – Angles
– Saxons.
The region was divided into several kingdoms, with the
more powerful kings sometimes exerting influence or control over smaller
bordering kingdoms. There was nothing like a single, unified English kingdom,
however, until the early 10th century and the rise of the House of Wessex.
Viking invasions and the Danelaw:
During the 8th century, seafaring Scandinavian
adventurers began raiding coastal areas in Europe. Known as the Vikings, they
were not just warriors and pillagers. They also established numerous trade
ports and settlements throughout the Western world, including the British
Isles, Russia, Iceland and the Iberian Peninsula. A group of Vikings that
settled in northern France became known as the Normans and, by the early 11th
century, ruled a great and powerful region, sanctioned by the French crown.
Danish Vikings began to invade northern and eastern
England in 876 and eventually came to control a third of the country, defeating
several smaller Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The rulers of the Danelaw, as the Viking
area became known, struggled for nearly 80 years with the remaining English
kings over the region. The balance of power swung back and forth a number of
times, with an English king, Edward the Elder, gaining the upper hand in the early
900s and a Danish king, Cnut the Great, ruling England, Norway and Denmark from
1016 to 1035. After the deaths of Cnut’s sons, the throne returned to
Anglo-Saxon control, but it was short-lived, as Edward the Confessor died
without an heir. The Normans of France, led by William the Conqueror, sailed
across the English Channel and claimed the throne of England, defeating the
only other rival, Harold Godwinson, at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. In 1067,
William extended his control to Scotland and Wales.
The Danelaw in 878 A.D.
The Battle of Hastings
The Houses of Plantagenet & Tudor:
The Norman kings, ruling primarily from France, gave
rise to the House of Plantagenet, a line of kings that began to consolidate and
modernize the kingdom of England. Beginning in 1277, Edward I put down a revolt
in Wales and led a full-scale invasion, bringing Wales under control of the
English crown. He then seized political control of Scotland during a succession
dispute, leading to a rebellion there. Edward’s campaign against the Scots
wasn’t entirely successful and remained unresolved at his death. By decisively
defeating Edward’s son at Bannockburn in 1314, the Scots assured their
independence. The House of Plantagenet continued to reign until the 15th
century. Towards the latter half of the 15th century the houses of York and the
Lancaster, the most powerful Plantagenet branches fought a series of wars for
control of the throne. Those wars ended with the Battle of Bosworth Field on
the 22nd August 1486. At Bosworth Field Henry Tudor defeated Richard III. Henry
took the throne as Henry VII and ushered in the reign of House Tudor. The reign
of the Tudors lasted from Henry VII through to Elizabeth I in 1603.
The British Empire:
After the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588,
England established itself as a major naval power. As European nations began founding
colonies around the world, England was well positioned to compete for control
of the largely untapped resources of the New World. Religious and political
upheavals in England in the 17th and 18th centuries played critical roles in
establishing and defining early American history, as dissidents left England
seeking religious freedom. Subsequent emigrations from England to the Americas
ensured a primarily English-derived culture and social structure.
English ships and the Spanish Armada ( 1588).
During the 1760’s and 1770’s the relationship between
the colonies in the Americas and Britain grew fractious due to the British
Parliament’s attempts to tax colonists without representation in Parliament.
This led to the American War of Independence with and the Thirteen Colonies
gaining independence and forming a new nation, the United States of America.
The loss of the Thirteen Colonies is seen as the
transition point in the British Empire from the First British Empire to the
Second British Empire. In the Americas, Britain shifted its attention north to
Canada where many of the defeated loyalists from the revolution had migrated
to. And to make up for lost wealth in America, Britain now paid greater
attention to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa. In the 1770’s, James Cook
travelled along Eastern Australia and New Zealand claiming them for Great
Britain. Shortly after Britain set up penal colonies in Australia transporting
large number of convicts to Australia. Over 80 years over 165,000 convicts were
sent to Australia. In Asia, through the East India Company the British Empire
gained more control throughout the continent. Throughout the early 19th Century
the East India Company gained control over Java, Singapore, Hong Kong and
India. The Government of India Act in 1858 established the British Raj, with
Queen Victoria as Empress of India. India became one of the British Empire’s
most important colonies. By the end of the 19th Century it was said that the
sun never set on the British Empire, since it stretched around the world.
Did You Know?
At lunchtime on the 28th February 1953 an American and
British scientist, James Watson and Francis Crick, walked into the Eagle pub in
Cambridge and announced that they had "discovered the secret of
life". What Watson and Crick had discovered was the famous double helix
structure of DNA. Crucial to their discovery was the work of another British
scientist, Rosalind Franklin, whose X-Ray photographs of DNA gave vital clues
to its structure.
European
Jewish:
Primarily located in Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Russia,
Hungary and Israel. Also found in: Germany, France, Lithuania, Latvia,
Slovakia, Czech Republic, Romania, Bosnia, Serbia and Estonia.
The
European Jewish region is not geographically defined in the same way as most other
ethnic regions. The historic dispersal of the Jewish population from its origin
in the Levant on the east coast of the Mediterranean resulted in insular
communities scattered throughout Europe, North Africa, Central Asia and the
Middle East. Although some Jewish communities enjoyed positions of relative
peace and prosperity, many more were segregated from mainstream society by law,
custom and prejudice, experiencing sustained persecution and discrimination.
Jewish populations from northern and eastern Europe are often known as
“Ashkenazi.” “Sephardic” refers to Jews who were expelled from Spain during the
Inquisition and mostly settled in North Africa and southeastern Europe.
How Leonardo Marin-Saavedra
compares to the typical person native to the European Jewish region
Leonardo Marin-Saavedra: 2%. Typical native: 96%.
Genetic Diversity in the European
Jewish Region:
The people living in the European Jewish region are
much less admixed than most other regions which means that when creating
ethnicity estimates for people native to this area, we rarely see similarities
to DNA profiles from other nearby regions. We’ve found that approximately 96%
of the typical native’s DNA comes from this region.
Examples of people native to the European
Jewish region
From a collection of
195 people
100%.
99%.
96%.
92%.
65%. 99%.
96%.
92%.
65%.
Other regions commonly seen in people native
to the European Jewish region
From a collection of
195 people
Region % of natives that have this region. Italy and
Greece: 6%. Iberian Peninsula: 4%. Caucasus: 3%. Middle East: 3%. Europe West: 3%.
Great Britain: 2%. Ireland: 2%. Europe East: 2%. Scandinavia: 2%.
We have used our reference panel to build a European
Jewish genetic profile. The blue chart above shows examples of ethnicity
estimates for people native to this region. For European Jewish, there is very
little (if any) DNA shared with neighboring regions. However, there are some
exceptions—a small minority of people’s DNA shows only 65% similarity to this
profile. Since approximately 96% of the typical native’s DNA comes from this
region, 4% is similar to other regions, such as the Italy/Greece region. (See
chart above, in green.)
Population History (Origin of the Jews):
Much of what is known about the early history of the
Jews is taken from the Hebrew Bible. While there is some archaeological
evidence to support certain details of the Biblical account, often it remains
the only source and is given varying amounts of credence by different scholars.
According to this source, the Jews are descended from Abraham, a Sumerian who
traveled west from Mesopotamia to the land of Canaan, which lay along the
eastern coast of the Mediterranean. Around 1020 B.C., the separate Hebrew
tribes were united under King Saul, creating the first Kingdom of Israel.
The Kingdom of Israel in 1020 B.C.
Babylonian exile:
After the reigns of David and his son Solomon, the
kingdom split into the Northern (or Israelite) Kingdom and the Kingdom of Judah
(Jewish Kingdom) in the south. The Assyrians conquered and deported many of the
inhabitants of the Northern Kingdom in the 7th century B.C.
In about 589 B.C., Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II
destroyed the Kingdom of Judah, sacking Jerusalem and destroying the First
Temple built by Solomon. A large number of Jews were expelled from their former
kingdom and forced to resettle in Babylon. Many historians mark this event as
the beginning of the Jewish diaspora, which refers to the scattering of the
population.
When Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon in 540 B.C.,
the Jewish people were permitted to return and rebuild Jerusalem. The former
Kingdom of Judah, renamed Judea, was made a province of the Persian
Empire—although its size was significantly reduced. The Jews’ Second Temple,
built on the site of the First Temple, was completed by about 518 B.C. Many
Jews returned to Jerusalem, but many more stayed in Babylon, where Talmudic
scholarship (study of the central text of Judaism) was founded. Over time,
prominent Jewish communities were established in Alexandria, Rome and Greece.
Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire,
capturing the Levant in 333 B.C. When his territories were divided after his
death, Judea became part of the Seleucid Empire. The Judeans were commanded to
accept Greek polytheism, leading to rebellion. Fighting for years under Judas
Maccabee, the Judeans won the right to rededicate the Temple, an event
commemorated by the holiday of Hanukkah.
The Roman Period:
The collapse of the Seleucid Empire led to a second
period of self-rule for the Jews, from 140 B.C. to 63 B.C. When King Herod
assumed power with the help of the Romans, however, Judea became a client state
of the Roman Republic. Judea was officially absorbed into the Roman Empire as
the Judaea Province in 92 A.D.
There were three major Jewish revolts against the
Romans in Judaea, the first of which began in 66 A.D. It was quelled in the
year 70 when Titus sacked Jerusalem. The city was burned and most of the Jews
were killed or sold into slavery throughout the Roman Empire. The second
revolt, called the Kitos War, lasted from 115 to 117. At the end of the Bar
Kokhba revolt (132-135), the Romans completely razed Jerusalem. Once again,
they sold the majority of the survivors into slavery, this time placing severe
restrictions on those who remained.
Destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem by Francesco
Hayez depicts the destruction of the Second Temple by Roman soldiers.
By the 2nd century, Jews were located throughout the
Roman Empire. By the 5th century, there were scattered communities from Spain
in the west to the Byzantine Empire in the east. Because Jews were usually
restricted by law from owning land, they turned toward occupations in commerce,
education and medicine.
Ashkenazi Jews:
Large communities of Jews settled in France and
Germany after the fall of Rome, the Arab conquests in the Middle East, and the
expulsions from Spain. The Jews who settled in Germany (called Ashkenazi) spoke
Yiddish, a mixture of German, Hebrew and Aramaic.
Over the centuries, the Jews settled where they could
throughout western Europe, enduring frequent discrimination and periodic
expulsions from various countries. Facing increasing persecution in the west
during the 11th and 12th centuries, many of the Ashkenazi Jews moved from
England, France and Germany to eastern Europe, where Poland and Lithuania
encouraged Jewish settlement. Historically, Ashkenazi Jews lived in separate
towns known at shtetls. In 1500, approximately 500,000 Jews lived in Poland. By
the middle of the 17th century, there were more than 1 million. It is estimated
that, prior to World War II, more than 90% of all Jews in the world were
descended from the Ashkenazi Jews.
Jews today:
During the late 19th century, government-condoned
persecution of the Jews in Russia, called pogroms, forced many to move to the
United States and to Palestine. In 1897 Theodor Herzl, an Austro-Hungarian
journalist, established the Zionist Organization and became the charismatic
figurehead of the growing modern Zionist movement. He and his supporters
continually lobbied foreign governments for help in the establishment of a
Jewish state.
After the Ottoman Empire was defeated in World War I,
its territories, including Palestine, were divided into mandates administered
by the British and French. The British government, with its Balfour Declaration
in 1917, announced its support of establishing Palestine as a national home for
the Jews. After World War II, during which an estimated 6 million Jews were
killed in the Holocaust, the United Nations divided Palestine in two,
effectively creating a new Jewish state, Israel.
As of today, about 42% of all Jews worldwide live in
the modern state of Israel. A small number of Jews have lived in this region
for generations, tracing their ancestors back thousands of years, with the
majority returning in the last century.
Did You Know?
The Western Wall in Jerusalem, also called the Wailing
Wall, is one of the holiest sites of Judaism. It is the only remaining part of
the Second Temple, destroyed by the Romans in 70 A.D.
Dome of the Rock and Wailing Wall by Peter Mulligan
America (Native
American): 37%. The Native American: Primarily located in: North America, Central America and South America.
Your
genetic ethnicity estimate indicates that you have ancestry from the region
that is home to the indigenous people of the Americas. This vast region
stretches over two continents to include the rugged territory of Alaska and
Canada, mountains and plains of the United States, dry valleys of Mexico,
tropical jungles of Central America and South America, and the Patagonian
steppes of southern Argentina and Chile.
How Leonardo Marin-Saavedra
compares to the typical person native to the Native American region
Leonardo
Marin-Saavedra: 37%. Typical
native: 100%.
Genetic Diversity in the Native American
Region:
Individuals from the Native American region are much
less admixed than individuals from most other regions. This means that when
creating genetic ethnicity estimates for people native to this area, we rarely
see similarities to DNA profiles from other regions. We’ve found that
approximately 100% of the typical native’s DNA comes from this region.
Examples of people native to the Native
American region
From a collection of
131 people
100%.
100%.
100%.
93%.
84%.
Other regions commonly seen in people native
to the Native American region
From a collection of
131 people
Region % of natives that have this region: Iberian
Peninsula: 8%. Great Britain: 4%. Italy
and Greece: 2%.
We’ve used our reference panel to build a genetic
profile for the Native American region. The blue chart above shows examples of
ethnicity estimates for people native to the area. For this region, we see a
very narrow range: for most people native to the area, about 100% of their DNA
looks similar to the profile. However, there are some exceptions, and we have a
small minority with as little as 84% of their DNA similar to this region. For
those who do share DNA with other regions, about 8% have at least some DNA
similar to the profile for the Iberian Peninsula region, which was likely
introduced by Spanish and Portuguese explorers. (See green chart above.)
Population History:
North and South America were the last inhabited
continents to be populated by humans. No more than 20,000 years ago, thanks to
low sea levels, the first “immigrants” to the Americas were able to cross a
land bridge from northern Asia into what is now Alaska and Canada via the
Bering Strait.
Much of the native population remained nomadic
hunter-gatherers, but a number of more advanced cultures developed as well.
Many places had rich soils, warm temperatures and plenty of rain. The
Mississippian culture, centered in the region later named for it, farmed maize
and had a complex, stratified society. The Mayans of Central America were
highly advanced, known for their writing, astronomy, art, mathematics and
highly developed religious institutions that built enormous stone pyramids.
Possible land route from Asia across the Bering Strait
The first contact with Europeans likely came when Leif
Erickson and his Icelandic Vikings established a temporary settlement in
Canada. But it wasn’t until Christopher Columbus arrived 500 years later that
European colonists began exploring and settling the region in earnest. Early
Spanish explorers like Hernando Cortes, Juan Ponce de Leon and Hernando de Soto
brought things the indigenous population had never seen before, such as horses,
guns and smallpox. With no natural immunity to European diseases and no way to
compete with the newcomers’ superior firepower, many Native Americans died or
were pushed out of their ancestral lands.
The Landing of Columbus by John Vanderlyn
Later, the United States government adopted a policy
of “civilizing” native tribes, encouraging indigenous people to give up many of
their traditional ways so members could be assimilated into American society.
As settlers continued moving westward, many tribes were relocated. However,
there are still many Native American groups throughout North America that
retain their indigenous languages and traditions, particularly in northern
Canada and in Mexico. A few, like the Pima, who live along the Gila and Salt
Rivers in modern-day Arizona, were able to keep at least parts of their
traditional territory.
In South America there are some indigenous peoples in
the Amazon area who have had little or no contact with people outside their
tribes. However, most of South America’s indigenous populations were deeply affected
by European occupation. New diseases and weapons took their toll there as well,
and local populations and cultures often waned or disappeared as European
colonization spread. Today some of those same cultures, and the indigenous
people who did survive, are recognized for contributions to fields as varied as
art, agriculture and medicine.
Migrations into this region:
North and South America were settled by at least three
waves of migrants from Asia, who occupied the Americas from Canada to the southern
tip of Chile. North America was initially occupied by people who came from
Siberia and coastal North Asia. Probably fewer than 1,000 individuals crossed
the Bering land bridge; they were likely tracking animal herds and discovered
an expansive new territory. Native Americans appear to derive from this initial
wave of migration. Mounting evidence suggests they dispersed rapidly along the
western coast of the Americas, perhaps by sea, within a period of only about a
thousand years. Not long after humans first appeared in today’s Alaska and the
western United States, they had already settled as far south as the tip of
modern-day Chile. Then they migrated inland. As settlers, these groups were
dramatically successful: In only a few thousand years they had occupied
virtually the entire landmass.
A Chipewyan woman - Photograph by Edward S. Curtis.
Current research has
shown that there were also two other migrations. Members of one of those
groups, the Eskimo-Aleut speakers, derive 50% of their DNA from the initial
natives and are located in Alaska. The second group, the Chipewyan, speaks a
Na-Dene language and derives 90% of their DNA from the initial natives. The
Chipewyan live in Canada.
Migrations within the region:
The native people of the Americas are divided into
several cultural regions. Cultures developed opportunistically as the first
migration moved quickly down the Pacific coastline of the Americas and then
inland.
While these breakdowns vary, the North American
regions typically include the Arctic, Subarctic, Northeast Woodlands,
Southeast, Plains, Great Basin, Plateau, Northwest Coast, California and
Southwest. Central and South American regions can be broken out into the
cultural areas of Mesoamerica, Caribbean, Andean, Amazonian and Southern Cone
(also called Cono).
Arctic - Great Basin
– Mesoamerican – Subarctic – Plateau – Caribbean - Northeast Woodlands - Northwest
Coast – Andean – Southeast – California – Amazonian – Plains – Southwest - Southern
Core (Cono).
Arctic:
The Arctic area is cold, flat and treeless; a frozen
desert nears the Arctic Circle. It includes Greenland and parts of present-day
Alaska and Canada. Climate and terrain made this region difficult to settle,
and the population was scattered and small. The Arctic peoples lived in
dome-shaped houses made of sod, timber or ice blocks. They used seal and otter
skins to make waterproof clothes and traveled by dogsleds and kayak.
Subarctic:
The Subarctic cultures lived among the swampy, piney
forests and waterlogged tundra that stretches across much of inland Alaska and
Canada. Travel was difficult, and toboggans, snowshoes and lightweight canoes
were the primary means of transportation. Population was sparse; people didn’t
form large, permanent settlements. Indigenous groups included Athabaskan and
Algonquian speakers, and the people were primarily nomadic hunters and
gatherers.
Northeast:
The Northeast cultures developed in the area from
today’s Atlantic coast of Canada to North Carolina and inland to the
Mississippi River Valley. Iroquoian and Algonquian speakers lived here in small
farming and fishing villages along the ocean, growing crops such as corn, beans
and vegetables. The Iroquoians were warriors. When the Europeans colonized the
area and pressed westward, they displaced the indigenous people living here.
A battle between Iroquois and Algonquian tribes near
Lake Champlain
Southeast:
The area of the Southeast cultures lay north of the
Gulf of Mexico and south of the Northeast. It was a humid, fertile region, and
its people became expert farmers, growing crops like maize, beans, squash,
tobacco and sunflowers. The European settlers called the inhabitants the Five
Civilized Tribes: Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek and Seminole. They all
spoke Muskogean languages. The Southeast culture area lost many of its native
people to disease and displacement by the time of the American Revolution.
Starting in 1830 the majority of these people were forced to relocate to
Oklahoma in a migration called the Trail of Tears.
Plains:
The Plains cultures were found on the vast prairie
region between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains, from Canada to
the Gulf of Mexico. Populations here consisted of relatively settled hunters
and farmers. After Europeans made contact, bringing horses, this group became
more nomadic, following great herds of buffalo across the prairie. Their
dwellings were cone-shaped teepees, which could be folded up and carried
anywhere. The Plains cultures were eventually forced onto U.S. government
reservations.
Sioux Tipis by Karl Bodmer
Southwest:
The Southwest cultures—which inhabited a huge desert
region in Arizona and New Mexico, as well as parts of Colorado, Utah, Texas and
Mexico—developed two different ways of life. Sedentary farmers lived in
permanent settlements, growing crops like corn, beans and squash. They were
Hopis, Zunis, Yaquis and Yumas. They lived in multistory pueblos built from
stone and adobe. The other group was nomadic and survived by hunting, gathering
and raiding the sedentary farmers. They included the Navajo and Apache. This
area became part of the United States after the Mexican War, and the Southwest
cultures were resettled on reservations.
"Walpi, Arizona (1941)". Photograph by Ansel
Adams.
Great Basin:
The boundaries for the Great Basin cultures were the
Rocky Mountains to the east, the Sierra Nevada to the west, the Columbia
Plateau to the north and the Colorado Plateau to the south. It was a barren
wasteland of deserts, salt flats and brackish lakes. Most of the Great Basin
peoples spoke Shoshonean, one of many Uto-Aztecan languages and dialects. They
foraged for roots, seeds and nuts, as well as hunting snakes, lizards and small
mammals. They were nomadic and lived in easily built wickiups made of willow
poles or saplings, leaves and brush. After Europeans made contact, bringing
horses to the region, the Great Basin tribes formed equestrian hunting and
raiding bands. Most of these people lost their lands—and many lost their
lives—as settlers pushed farther west.
Apache wickiup in Arizona, 1880
California:
Before Europeans made contact, the California
cultures’ homelands supported more people than any other area north of
present-day Mexico. The region was temperate and hospitable, and the California
peoples included approximately 100 different tribes and spoke at least 200
dialects of the Penutian, Hokan, Uto-Aztecan and Athapaskan languages. The
California cultures didn’t farm the land, but organized themselves into small,
family-based bands of hunter-gatherers called tribelets. Using systems of trade
and common rights, they were peaceful people.
Northwest Coast:
Cultures of the Northwest Coast lived along the
Pacific Coast, from British Columbia to the top of Northern California. The
area had a mild climate and an abundance of natural resources. Inhabitants
built permanent villages that housed hundreds of people and had a
sophisticated, stratified social structure. Social status depended on
possessions and how close a person was to the village chief.
Plateau:
The Plateau cultures were found in the Columbia and
Fraser River Basins, where many cultures intersected: Subarctic, Plains, Great
Basin, California and Northwest Coast peoples all lived in modern-day Idaho,
Montana, Washington and eastern Oregon. Most of the Plateau peoples lived in
small, peaceful villages along streams and riverbanks. They were fishers,
hunters and gatherers. The majority spoke languages derived from Penutian. When
other native groups brought horses to the area, the Plateau peoples quickly
integrated them into their culture and economy, and trading became a part of
their lives. Most of these people were resettled on reservations.
Mesoamerican:
The Mesoamerican cultures inhabited an area that
exte
nds roughly from today’s central Mexico through Central America and into
northern Costa Rica. This group is defined by a mosaic of cultural traits that
were developed and shared by its indigenous cultures. When they domesticated
turkeys and dogs and learned to cultivate maize, beans, squash and chilies, the
Mesoamerican cultures evolved from Paleo-Indian, hunter-gatherer, tribal living
into settled agricultural villages.
The Mesoamerican peoples include many cultures, among
which the Aztecs and the Mayans rose to prominence in their day. Their
civilizations featured large ceremonial centers, and they traded gems and
commodities. The Aztecs spoke Nahuatl and are best known for their mathematical
expertise and accurate calendars. The Mayans had a written language and are
known for their astronomy, art and architecture—as well as their calendar.
The Aztecs were subjugated by the Spanish
conquistadors by 1521. Some of the Mayans remained independent until the late
17th century. However, many aspects of Mesoamerican cultures, including
languages, still survive to this day.
Piedra
Azteca del Sol. Museo Nacional de Antropología de México
(The Aztec Sun Stone. From National Museum of Anthropology
of Mexico)
Caribbean:
The Caribbean cultures stem from nomadic foragers who
migrated from Central America and later developed into well-organized
agricultural communities with great social and political cohesion. The islands
have significant cultural diversity within and among them. The cultures had
extensive trade networks, knowledge of astronomy and navigation, strong
spiritual traditions and high levels of artistic and craft expertise. They were
the first to encounter Christopher Columbus and his men, so they were the first
victims of the newcomers’ diseases and violence, and the population was almost
destroyed. Today, however, many individuals and groups with indigenous
Caribbean ancestry are reclaiming their cultural identity.
Andean:
The Andean cultural area spans mountainous, tropical
and desert environments in and around the Andes mountain range. The region has
been home to many different ethnic groups; Christopher Columbus called those he
encountered “indios”. However, the most famous is the Incan civilization. The
Incan Empire was enormous, flourishing from 1438 through 1533. The Incan
language, Quechua, is still in use today.
The Andean region has seen 10,000 years of cultural
growth. Along with cultures in the Amazon Basin region, Andean cultures
typically promote agriculture and knowledge of nature. A wide variety of
domesticated species have come out of the region, and these cultures also use
thousands of medicinal plants.
Amazon Basin:
The best-known tribe among Amazon Basin cultures is
the Yanomami, which still survives today. Many indigenous tribes of this area
have a vast knowledge of medicinal plants, and the outside world often observes
the practices of their healers to learn more about the plants’ curative
properties. The Amazon still has several small tribes that have never seen the
outside world. More are being discovered through the use of satellites. Current
practice is to leave these groups undisturbed, using aerial observations to
learn more about them.
Yanomami girl at Xidea, Brazil (August 1997) - Photo
by Cmacauley
Southern Cone (Cono):
Prior to European conquest, the Southern Cone of South
America was inhabited by numerous cultures that were shaped by their
environments. Tribes in the Andes farmed the region's mineral-rich soil. The
southern archipelago was suitable for fishing. Hunter-gatherers found an
abundance of game in the Pampas, Littoral and Chaco regions.
Please note that genetic ethnicity estimates are based on individuals
living in this region today. While a prediction of genetic ethnicity from this
region suggests a connection to the groups occupying this location, it is not
conclusive evidence of membership to any particular tribe or ethnic group.
Did You Know?
More than 3,500 varieties of potato have been raised
by people in Andean cultures.
Africa
13%: Cameroon and Congo 8%. Primarily
located in Cameroon, Gabon, Congo and Republic of Congo.
Also found in: Angola, Chad.
Because they lie near or on the equator, these nations
typically include tropical rainforest and humid savanna. While the Congo takes
its name from the old African kingdom of Kongo, Cameroon gets its name from the
first Europeans to arrive in the area in 1472. Portuguese sailors found
crayfish in the Wouri River and started calling the land the Rio dos Camarões,
or River of Shrimp. Eventually, the word Camarões became Cameroon.
How Leonardo Marin-Saavedra compares to the
typical person native to the Cameroon/Congo region
Leonardo
Marin-Saavedra: 8%. Typical native: 92%.
Genetic Diversity in the
Cameroon/Congo Region:
People living in the Cameroon/Congo region today are
less admixed than people in most other regions, which means that when creating
genetic ethnicity estimates for natives to this area, we sometimes see small
similarities to DNA profiles from other nearby regions. We’ve found that
approximately 92% of the typical Cameroon/Congo native’s DNA comes from this
region.
Examples of people native to the
Cameroon/Congo region
From a collection of
115 people
100%. 98%. 92%. 83%.
45%.
Other
regions commonly seen in people native to the Cameroon and Congo region - From a collection of 115 people. Region % of natives
that have this region:. Nigeria: 21%. Africa Southeastern… Bantu: 21%. Benin/Togo: 10%. Mali: 10%. Ivory Coast/Ghana: 4%. Africa South-Central
Hunter-Gatherers: 2%. Senegal: 1%.
We’ve used our reference panel to build a genetic
profile for the Cameroon/Congo region. The blue chart above shows examples of
ethnicity estimates for people native to the region. For Cameroon/Congo we see
a fairly narrow range: for most people native to the area, between 83% and 100%
of their DNA looks similar to the profile. However, we also found people with
as little as 45% of their DNA coming from the region. The other regions most
commonly found are the neighboring Nigeria and Africa Southeastern Bantu
regions. About 21% of people from the Cameroon/Congo region have at least some
DNA from these regions. (See green chart above.)
Population History:
The Congo River Basin has been home to human
populations for at least 30,000 years. The first settlers in Cameroon were
probably the Baka, groups of Pygmy hunter-gatherers who still inhabit the
forests of the south and east, as well as neighboring Gabon and the two Congo’s.
This small group (some 40,000) is actually more closely related to groups found
in the deserts of the Africa South-Central Hunter-Gatherers region.
Two Baka men
in the dense forests of Cameroon
Baka Pygmy
collecting honey in the rainforest, Cameroon
In north-central Cameroon, a high range of rugged
mountains stretches across the country from west to east. To the far south and
east, in the vast Congo River Basin, the environment consists of dense
rainforest and wide waterways. These features have created a degree of
isolation and served as a barrier to frequent or large-scale migrations or
conquests.
Although the Cameroon/Congo region is incredibly
diverse, with more than 200 different ethnic groups, our genetic profile for
the region is primarily represented by samples from the Cameroon Grasslands,
where the largest populations are subgroups of the Bamileke and Bamum peoples.
These tribes’ origins are not known, but it appears that in the 17th century,
they moved south into Cameroon in a series of migrations to avoid
enslavement—and, in some cases, forced conversion to Islam—by the Fulani
peoples. Cameroon’s west and northwest provinces are the country’s most densely
populated regions. The populous Bamileke tend to be Christian and live in small
fons, or chiefdoms, in highly organized villages led by local chiefs. The less
populous Bamum tend to be Muslim and have a more centralized social structure
under a high king.
Bamileke dancers in Batié, West Province (Cameroon) -
Photo by Anya Lothrop
Besides the Grasslands tribes, a smaller number of
people live in the southern and central regions of Cameroon and in
Congo-Brazzaville (Republic of Congo) and Congo-Kinshasa (Democratic Republic
of Congo). However, many of the ethnic groups found in the two Congo’s are of
Bantu origin—meaning they share a common ancestral language and an ancestral
homeland on the western border of modern Cameroon and Nigeria. The Bantu
peoples began migrating from Cameroon in about 1000 B.C. Some went east across
Africa and then south; some settled the Congo River Basin; and some went south
along the coast to Angola. These Bantu groups have a genetic ethnicity better
represented by the Southeastern Bantu region profile.
The slave trade:
The international slave trade in this region began
with the Portuguese on Cameroon’s west coast, though it became the practice of
many European countries. The threat of malaria prevented any significant
settlement or conquest of the interior prior to the 1870s—when an effective
malaria drug (quinine) became available. So the Europeans initially focused on
coastal trade and acquiring slaves. Most slaves were captured by African
middlemen from the interior and taken to port cities to be sold, and the flow of
human traffic from many ethnic groups was constant. Around 1.5 million slaves
left Africa from this region of Cameroon; combined, nearly half of all slaves
destined to work in the Western Hemisphere came from Cameroon and the Congo
River Basin. Many slaves from the coastal regions of Cameroon and Equatorial
Guinea ended up in Maryland, Virginia and South Carolina.
Slaves being transported, 19th-century engraving
The 19th and 20th centuries:
Cameroon escaped colonial rule until 1884, when
treaties with tribal chiefs brought the area under German domination. After
World War I, the League of Nations gave the French a mandate over 80% of the
area and the British control of the remaining 20% (the area adjacent to
Nigeria). After World War II the country came under a United Nations
trusteeship and self-government was granted. Independence was achieved in 1960
for French Cameroon and in 1961 for British Cameroon.
Please note that genetic
ethnicity estimates are based on individuals living in this region today. While
a prediction of genetic ethnicity from this region suggests a connection to the
groups occupying this location, it is not conclusive evidence of membership to
any particular tribe or ethnic group.
Did You Know?
DNA indicates that John Punch, the first African man
documented to have been enslaved for life in the early American Colonies,
likely came from the Cameroon region.
Ivory Coast and Ghana: 3%. Primarily located in: Ivory Coast and Ghana. Also found in: Benin, Togo, Mali, Nigeria and Senegal.
Early
French and Portuguese explorers identified sections of the West African coast
by the area’s resources, which is how Côte d'Ivoire, or Ivory Coast, got its
name. Neighboring Ghana was known as the Gold Coast until it won independence
from colonial rule in 1957 and renamed itself after a medieval West African
empire. Today, more than 46 million people live in the two countries, which
depend less on gold and ivory than they do chocolate: Ivory Coast and Ghana
produce more than half of the world’s cocoa.
Africa South-Central
Hunter-Gatherers: 1%.. Primarily located in South Africa, Namibia, Botswana and Congo. Also found in Angola, Zambia, Tanzania, Kenya
The
Africa South-Central Hunter-Gatherers region is made up of ancient
hunter-gatherer and pastoral groups who, though small in number and physical
height, are considered the wellspring of human populations around the world.
Increasingly, southern African Khoe-San groups and Central Africa’s Mbuti and
Baka (Pygmy) groups are drawing the attention of scholars and researchers for
their genetic diversity, ancient origins and unique cultural traditions.
How Leonardo Marin-Saavedra
compares to the typical person native to the Africa South-Central
Hunter-Gatherers region
Leonardo Marin-Saavedra: 1%. Typical native: 86%.
Genetic Diversity in the Africa
South-Central Hunter-Gatherers Region
Individuals from the Africa South-Central
Hunter-Gatherers region are admixed, which means that when creating genetic
ethnicity estimates for people native to this area, we frequently see
similarities to DNA profiles from other nearby regions. We’ve found that
approximately 86% of the typical South-Central Hunter-Gatherer’s DNA comes from
this region.
Examples of people native to the Africa
South-Central Hunter-Gatherers region
From a collection of
35 people
100%.
100%.
86%.
74%.
62%.
Other regions commonly seen in people native
to the Africa South-Central Hunter-Gatherers region
From a collection of
35 people:
Region% of natives that have this region:
Cameroon/Congo: 54%. Africa
Southeastern Bantu: 9%. Mali: 6%. Ivory
Coast and Ghana: 3%.
We have used our reference panel to build a genetic
profile for the Africa South-Central Hunter-Gatherers region. The blue chart
above shows examples of ethnicity estimates for people native to this region.
For this region we see a substantial range: for most natives to this area,
between 74% and 100% of their DNA looks similar to the profile. However, for
others, as little as 62% of their DNA comes from this region. The other region
most commonly found is the neighboring Cameroon/Congo region. About 54% of
people from the Africa South-Central Hunter-Gatherers region have at least some
DNA from Cameroon/Congo. (See the green chart above.)
Population History (Geography as destiny):
The Africa South-Central Hunter-Gatherers region
includes much of southern Africa (Namibia, Botswana and South Africa) and the
heart of Central Africa (the Democratic Republic of the Congo, or
Congo-Kinshasa). Individuals with this genetic ethnicity may also be found in
Angola, Zambia, Tanzania and Kenya.
There are two geographic features important to
understanding the people’s native to this region. First is the Kalahari Desert,
the second-largest desert in the world, which spans a large part of five
countries. Despite having no water source beyond seasonal rainfall, the
Kalahari is home to a rich variety of plants and animals that have made life
possible for the Khoe-San peoples spread across it. The second important
feature is the Congo River Basin; the river drainage and massive rainforests
provide a home to the Baka and Mbuti and other Pygmy groups.
Life in the Kalahari Desert and Congo forests was
fraught with risks and dangers that could only be overcome by cooperation.
Harmony in the group was the highest cultural goal for people native to these
regions.
Kalahari Desert in Namibia
Village Ndobo on the shoreline of the Congo River
The Khoe-San:
The southern portion of this region has been home to
the nomadic Khoe-San peoples for thousands of years. The pastoral Khoe, or Khoi
(“the people”), rely on herds of livestock for sustenance. The San people,
often referred to as “Bushmen,” are hunter-gatherers who forage for plants,
insects, roots, game and water. Both groups comprise many smaller groups and
clans. Though distinct culturally and linguistically, the Khoe and San have a
common genetic origin. The fact that the Khoe-San have among the highest levels
of genetic diversity in the world has led researchers to believe that the
Khoe-San are one of the world’s most ancient human populations.
A San tribesman in Namibia - Photo by Ian Beatty
Though the Khoe tend to have hierarchical cultures
based on livestock wealth, the San have no hierarchy, share all things and make
all decisions by consensus, even if reaching agreement takes a long time. Both
cultures are oral in nature—they have no written language—but have distinctive
art forms and language. The Khoisan languages are known for their distinctive
clicks; however, their languages are unrelated to nearby Bantu languages such as
Zulu and Xhosa, which have adopted some Khoisan click consonants.
Because the Khoe-San groups have no written language,
their history is based on archaeological findings, oral tradition and DNA
studies. The great Bantu migrations from eastern Africa brought successful
ironworking, animal husbandry and farming to southern Africa, creating
fast-growing populations that displaced the Khoe-San peoples. From the 16th
through the 18th centuries, Bantu groups pushed the Khoe-San farther south and
west toward modern-day Botswana and South Africa, while Dutch and French
settlers of the Cape region pressured Khoe groups to move farther north.
Although they had been spread thinly across southern Africa for thousands of
years, the Khoe-San population ultimately concentrated in the arid Kalahari and
areas they occupy today.
The Baka and Mbuti:
The rainforests of the Congo River Basin, especially
those of the north and east, are home to Pygmy groups such as the Baka and
Mbuti. They live in small, nomadic groups, eating fish, bushmeat and foraged
fruits and plants. The Baka and Mbuti groups are also communal, egalitarian and
make decisions by consensus.
Of the early history of the Baka and Mbuti and other
Pygmy groups, even less is known than about the Khoe-San people’s history. The
tropical rainforests tend to swallow up their artifacts and habitations, which
are made of natural materials that decompose quickly. Archaeological evidence
indicates that human populations have lived in the Congo River Basin for some
30,000 years. Genetic evidence points to all Pygmy populations coming from a
common ancestral group about 3,000 years ago.
Portrait of a Baka man (1879). Photo by Richard Buchta
- Courtesy of Pitt Rivers Museum in southern Sudan.
Colonial and modern eras:
Because of their small populations, isolation, nomadic
lifestyle and the largely inaccessible and inhospitable areas they lived in,
the Khoe-San and Baka and Mbuti people were less afflicted by the slave trade
than other African populations. The Colonial Era, however, had numerous
long-range effects. As the newcomers came into contact with the native peoples,
they altered migration patterns, introduced Christianity, made certain lands
off-limits and changed the hierarchies and relationships among tribes and
clans. Ultimately, the nations that were formed in the aftermath of
colonization continued to disenfranchise nomadic peoples, using their
traditional lands for resources such as diamonds, gold, platinum and strategic
minerals.
Please note that genetic
ethnicity estimates are based on individuals living in this region today. While a prediction of genetic
ethnicity from this region suggests a connection to the groups occupying this
location, it is not conclusive evidence of membership to any particular tribe
or ethnic group.
Did You Know?
Many consider the San to be the best trackers in the
world. In fact, scientists have recently recruited San trackers to help
decipher prehistoric human footprints that have been preserved in caves.
A San hunter in the Kalahari Desert
Senegal: Primarily located in Senegal and the Gambia. Also found in: Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Mali and Mauritania.
Africa’s
westernmost nation, Senegal, lies about 1,000 miles above the equator and
boasts miles of beaches along the Atlantic. It’s bordered by Mauritania, Mali,
Guinea, and Guinea-Bissau and almost completely encircles the Gambia. The
country’s current population is just about evenly divided between urban and
rural dwellers, with more than 2 million Senegalese now living in and around
the capital city of Dakar. Senegal is widely known for its music, including
mbalax (“rhythm” in Wolof, the working language of Senegal) and dazzling sabar
drumming.
How Leonardo Marin-Saavedra
compares to the typical person native to the Senegal region
Leonardo Marin-Saavedra: 1%.
Typical native: 100%.
Genetic Diversity in the
Senegal Region:
People
living in the Senegal region are not very admixed, which means that when
creating genetic ethnicity estimates for people native to this area, we don’t
often see similarities to DNA profiles from other nearby regions. We’ve found
that about 100% of the typical Senegal native’s DNA comes from this region.
Examples of people native
to the Senegal region:
From a collection of 28 people
100%.
100%.
100%.
80%.
52%.
Other regions commonly seen
in people native to the Senegal region
From a collection of 28 people:
Region % of
natives (that have this region): Mali: 46%. Benin and Togo: 7%.
We
have used our reference panel to build a genetic profile for Senegal. The blue
chart above shows examples of ethnicity estimates for people native to this
region. For Senegal, we see a very narrow range. For most natives, between 80%
and 100% of their DNA looks similar to the profile. However there are some
exceptions, and we see some with as little as 52% of their DNA from this
region. For those who show similarity to DNA profiles from neighboring regions,
about 46% have at least some DNA from the Mali region. (See green chart above.)
Population History:
Archeological
findings indicate that the Senegal area has been inhabited since prehistoric
times. For the last millennium at least, trade routes have helped shape the
area. Trans-Saharan trade flowing to and from the interior of Africa helped
establish and maintain the Ghana, Mali, and Wolof (or Jolof) Empires, each of
which bordered or included portions of modern-day Senegal. Trade and conquest
brought wealth, Islam and people into the region—and sometimes pushed people
out. Portuguese traders reached the estuary of the Senegal River in the
mid-1400s. Over the next four centuries the direction of trade shifted. Instead
of heading inland, toward the Sahara, it began to flow outward, toward the
European traders on the Atlantic Coast. As colonial powers began to push
farther inland themselves in the 19th century, they eventually brought an
end to local kingdoms and actually furthered the spread of Islam, which became
a way of uniting against the European invaders. Slave raiding and trading were
major sources of revenue for the region’s kings, and the island of Gorée (just
a mile off the coast of Senegal, opposite Dakar) became the largest
slave-trading center in Africa. Controlled at various times by the Portuguese,
Dutch, English and French, the island served as a warehouse where, over a
200-year period, millions of slaves were taken from their homeland. The island,
with its House of Slaves museum and memorial, is now a pilgrimage destination
for the African diaspora from the slave trade.
House of Slaves on Gorée Island
View of Gorée Island off the coast of Senegal
The
French took control of Senegal in the 19th century, while the Gambia became a
British colony. Senegal gained independence in 1960; the Gambia, in 1965.
Migrations and ethnic groups in
the Senegal region:
Senegal’s
current population is believed to be a mixture of peoples who moved into the
region from the north and the east. Despite its relatively small size, the area
is home to several ethnic groups. Today, the predominant population groups are
the Wolof (43%), the Fula (23%) and the Serer (14%). Others include the Jola
and the Mandinka.
Wolof:
Many
believe the Wolof (or Jolof) people migrated into Senegal from the northeast
sometime around the 11th century. By 1350, they had established their own
empire, a federation of several Wolof kingdoms, or states. The Wolof Empire
came to an end when the French took control of the interior during the 19th
century. Most Wolof identify themselves as Muslim. Their culture once had a
three-tiered caste system—freeborn, of slave descent, and artisans—though this
has broken down somewhat in recent times. The Wolof language has become the
lingua franca of Senegal.
Fula:
Historically,
the Fula (Fulani, Fulbe, Peul) were a nomadic people known for keeping cattle.
Some evidence suggests that their presence in West Africa goes back centuries,
possibly including North African and Middle Eastern ancestry. They spread
outward from Senegal, through western and central Africa and east to the Sudan.
They are also strongly linked to Islam, and some Fulani led jihads in West
Africa as late as the 19th century. In modern Senegal, they primarily live in
the Fouta Toro area, in the northeastern part of the country; and near
Casamance, south of the Gambia.
Serer:
Some
scholars believe that the Serer people have the oldest roots in the region, and
Serer oral traditions claim their original ancestors came from the Upper Nile
area. The Serer people resisted Islam for centuries, and some still practice
their traditional religion of Fat Rog (or Fat Roog). Many also speak one of the
Serer languages, and most occupy the west-central part of modern Senegal.
Although the Serer are a minority in the country, Senegal’s first and second
presidents were Serers. Senegalese wrestling also has roots in Serer forms of
wrestling, which was once used to train warriors for combat.
Senegalese wrestling. Photo by
Pierre-Yves Beaudouin.
Mandinka:
The
Mandinka are a minority population in Senegal, but a significant one because of
their experience with the slave trade. The Mandinka group is a branch of the
Mandé peoples, who came south into the areas of Senegal and Mali and were
instrumental in founding the Ghana and Mali Empires. During the slave trade
era, up to one third of the Mandinka people were enslaved and shipped to the
New World. (Mandinka make up more than 40% of the population in neighboring
Gambia.)
Please note that genetic
ethnicity estimates are based on individuals living in this region today. While
a prediction of genetic ethnicity from this region suggests a connection to the
groups occupying this location, it is not conclusive evidence of membership to
any particular tribe or ethnic group.
Did You Know?
Senegal’s
famous sabar drums, played with one hand and one stick, were once used to
communicate among villages and could be heard for miles.
Two sabar drums from Senegal - Photo by
Michael Brouwer
Benin and Togo: Primarily located in Benin and Togo. Also found in Ghana, Nigeria and Mali.
For
years, anthropologists and others looked at African ethnic groups as being
mostly solitary and static. However, historians now know that huge empires and
kingdoms, with administrations and armies, diplomatic corps and distant trading
partners, have long been part of Africa’s fabric. This is especially true of
West Africa, where migrations, conquests and intermarriage within allied
kingdoms help explain why, for example, 43% of people from the Benin/Togo
region have DNA that looks similar to the profile for the Ivory Coast and Ghana
region, and 28% similar to the profile for Nigeria.
How Leonardo Marin-Saavedra
compares to the typical person native to the Benin/Togo region
Leonardo Marin-Saavedra: 0%.
Typical native: 82%.
Genetic Diversity in the Benin and Togo
Region:
The people living in the Benin/Togo region are
admixed, which means that when creating genetic ethnicity estimates for people
native to this area, we sometimes see similarities to DNA profiles from other
regions. We’ve found that approximately 82% of the typical Benin/Togo native’s
DNA comes from this region.
Examples of people native to the Benin/Togo
region:
From a collection of
60 people
100%.
100%.
82%.
65%.
28%.
Other regions commonly seen in people native
to the Benin/Togo region:
From a collection of
60 people
Region % of natives that have this region: Ivory
Coast and Ghana: 43%. Nigeria: 28%. Mali: 25%. Cameroon and Congo: 10%. Senegal: 3%. Africa Southeastern Bantu: 3%.
We have used our reference panel to build a genetic
profile for Benin/Togo. The blue chart above shows examples of ethnicity
estimates for people native to this region. For Benin/Togo we see a fairly wide
range: for some natives, as little as 28% of their DNA comes from the region,
while for others, 100% looks similar to the profile. For Benin/Togo natives
with DNA from neighboring regions, we most commonly see the Ivory Coast/Ghana
region. About 43% of Benin/Togo natives have DNA from Ivory Coast/Ghana, while
another 28% have DNA similar to the profile for Nigeria. (See the green chart
above.)
Population History:
Benin sits just west of Nigeria, and west of Benin is
Togo. Benin has a population of 9.88 million that is growing at an annual rate
of 2.84%. Togo is only slightly behind with a growth rate of 2.73% and 7.15
million people. Both countries’ populations are largely rural, but more densely
concentrated along the coast. Though tied closely together by history,
geography and religion, the inhabitants of Benin and Togo are ethnically quite
different.
Women paddling a boat near Ganvie, Benin
Benin’s largest ethnic group is the Fon (39%),
followed by the Adja (15%), Yoruba (12%) and Bariba (9%). Togo’s largest ethnic
groups are the Ewe (21%), Kabye (12%), Mina (3.2%) and Kotokoli (3.2%). Benin has
more ethnic ties to its neighbor Nigeria; Togo has more links to Ghana. These
ethnic ties are the result of long-standing kingdoms that flourished before
European colonists created new borders.
Considering their small size, both countries have
great ethnic diversity, especially in the north. Some populations there are
related to ethnic groups farther north in Burkina Faso, and the small but
influential Hausa population is largely responsible for bringing Islam to Togo.
In the south of Benin, the Fon people are dominant. They are descendants from
the powerful African kingdom of Dahomey that ruled the region from about 1600
to 1900. Most northern Beninese and Togolese practice herding, fishing and
subsistence farming. Trade is limited in the north, where neither country has
much in the way of navigable waterways or viable roads. In the more urbanized
south, however, people have greater social and physical mobility. Most urban
Africans in the Benin/Togo region work at a trade or sell goods at local markets.
In the past, the proximity to the coast spawned trade relationships with
Europeans, other Africans and with slave traders. The countries on the Bight of
Benin were part of the so-called “Slave Coast” and in the late 1600s became the
top suppliers of slaves to the New World. As a result, the genetic footprint of
the Benin/Togo region can be found across much of the Western Hemisphere.
Dahomey:
Many people in Togo and Benin speak one of about 20
related Gbe languages. Linguistic evidence indicates that most of the Gbe
people came from the east in several migrations between the 10th and 15th
centuries. The Gbe were pushed westward during a series of wars with the Yoruba
people of Nigeria, then settled in Tado on the Mono River (in present-day
Togo). Around 1600, Fon emigrants from Tado established the Kingdom of Dahomey,
a Fon monarchy that ruled Benin for some 300 years. Its standing army, an aggressive
economic model that relied on slavery for export and labor, and its “Amazon”
warriors (elite troops of fierce, female combat soldiers) made the Kingdom of
Dahomey a powerful regional threat. It was also the top trading partner with
the Europeans. Other contemporary kingdoms in Benin included Porto-Novo, as
well as smaller northern states. In Togo, the Kabye and Lamba (or Lama) peoples
migrated to the north between 600 and 1200 A.D. Many other groups who settled
in Togo were refugees of wars in Dahomey and what is now Ghana.
Gezo, King of Dahomey. Image from Dahomey and the Dahomans
by Frederick E.
Forbes, NYPL
Slave trade:
European slave traders first became a force on the
coast of West Africa. By 1475 Portuguese traders had reached the Bight of
Benin, and by the mid-1500s Spain and England had also legalized the slave
trade. As the demand for slaves grew, the Kingdom of Dahomey (and others in the
region) provided European traders with a constant supply in exchange for goods
and firearms. Dahomey, which had long paid tribute to the Yoruba Empire of Oyo,
used its new weapons and power to throw off that yoke. More than 2 million
slaves were sent from the Bight of Benin to the New World, and among them were
many from Benin and Togo’s major ethnic groups. The Adja, Mina, Ewe and Fon
groups of this region were the third-most enslaved groups sent to the New
World. A great number of these went to Haiti and Brazil, where they established
their traditional religious practices and ancestor worship, better known today
as Voodoo, Santería or Macumba.
Colonization:
With the end of slavery, the Kingdom of Dahomey lost
its revenue source and began an economic decline. The French defeated Dahomey
in a series of wars between 1890 and 1894, and eventually, both Benin and Togo
(minus an area under British control) became part of French West Africa. One
result of the French colonial period was that, in many cases, French West
Africans had certain citizenship or other rights under French law; over time,
African communities sprang up in France and other parts of Europe. In 1960,
both Benin and Togo declared independence.
Combat de Dogba, 19 September, 1892, by Alexandre d'Albéca, depicting a battle during the
Second War of Dahomey.
Please note that genetic ethnicity estimates are based on individuals
living in this region today. While a prediction of genetic ethnicity from this
region suggests a connection to the groups occupying this location, it is not
conclusive evidence of membership to any particular tribe or ethnic group.
Did You Know?
Benin’s village of Ganvie stands on stilts in the
middle of Lake Nokoué. Tradition says the village was built on the lake to
protect the Tofinu people from slave traders because Fon warriors, who captured
slaves for Portuguese traders, were not allowed to fight on water.
West Asia: 2%. Caucasus:
2%.
Caucasus:
Primarily
located in Armenia, Azerbaijan,
Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey. Also
found in: Bulgaria, Jordan, Greece,
Italy, Kuwait, Palestine, Romania and Turkmenistan.
The
Greater Caucasus Range, running northwest to southeast between the Black and Caspian
Seas, is the traditional line of demarcation between the continents of Europe
and Asia. It was here, according to Greek mythology, that Zeus bound Prometheus
for giving fire to humans. Linguistically, culturally, and even ecologically
diverse, the Caucasus area is home to more than 50 ethnic groups and is one of
34 "biodiversity hotspots" (areas with significant, threatened
biodiversity) in the world.
How Leonardo Marin-Saavedra compares to the
typical person native to the Caucasus region
Leonardo Marin-Saavedra: 2%. Typical native: 83%.
Genetic Diversity in the Caucasus Region:
People living in the Caucasus region today are
admixed, which means that when creating genetic ethnicity estimates for people
native to this area, we frequently see similarities to DNA profiles from other
nearby regions. We’ve found that approximately 83% of the typical native’s DNA
comes from this region.
Examples
of people native to the Caucasus region
From a collection of
58 people
Other regions commonly seen in people native
to the Caucasus region:
From a collection of
58 people
Region % of natives that have this region. Middle
East: 53%. Asia South: 50%. Europe
East: 12%. Italy and
Greece: 10%. Asia
Central: 9%. Scandinavia: 7%. Great
Britain: 5%. Ireland: 5%. European
Jewish: 3%. Asia East: 2%. Europe
West: 2%.
We have used our reference panel to build a genetic
profile for the Caucasus region. The blue chart above shows examples of
ethnicity estimates for people native to this area. For the Caucasus, we
normally see a relatively narrow range: for most natives, between 70% and 96%
of their DNA looks similar to the profile. However, others have as little as
46% of their DNA from this region. The other regions most commonly found are
the neighboring Middle East and Asia South regions. (See green chart above.)
Population History:
Our Caucasus region extends from the Anatolian
Peninsula and the nation of Turkey, bordered by the Mediterranean, to the
Caucasus Mountains, which form its northern boundary along Russia’s
southwestern edge. There, the nations of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan are
nestled in the highlands between the Black and Caspian Seas. In the south, it
stretches from Syria to Iran, reaching all the way to the Persian Gulf and
Arabian Sea. Its location has made the area a homeland for some of the world's
most famous civilizations and empires. Cyrus the Great expanded his territories
from his home in Iran to create the powerful Persian Empire, the largest in the
world to that point (around 540 B.C.). Known for his religious and cultural
tolerance, Cyrus freed the Jews from slavery to the Babylonians. Cyrus’s
descendants Darius and Xerxes famously battled the Greeks at Thermopylae,
Salamis and Marathon during the Greco-Persian Wars.
Turkey, in particular, has historically been at the
crossroads of Eastern and Western cultures, beginning with the Trojan War. As
famously narrated by Homer in his Iliad, Mycenaean Greeks laid siege to the
ancient Lydian city of Troy, which was most likely part of the ancient Hittite
Empire. The Roman Empire, ruling from Constantinople, spread Christianity and
Greco-Roman culture throughout Anatolia. The arrival of Turkic peoples from
Central Asia brought the Turkish language and Islam. Their eventual conquests
in the Byzantine Empire and its territories in the Holy Lands of the Levant
were the catalysts for the first Crusades.
The Burning of Troy by Johann Georg Trautmann
Much of the Caucasus region is Muslim. Shia Islam is
the official state religion of Iran, while the Sunni branch is predominant in
the Caucasus groups of the north, such as the Nogay (also Nogai), Adyghe and
Chechens. Modern-day Turkey is a secular nation, but the vast majority of the
population is Muslim, including the Kurds in the southeast. Georgia and Armenia
have a long history of Christianity, being two of the earliest nations to adopt
it. Along with Azerbaijan, they were part of the former Soviet Union (USSR).
Since the dissolution of the USSR, continual border disputes contribute to a
tense atmosphere.
Migrations into this region:
About 45,000 years ago, modern humans first came to
the Caucasus Mountains and surrounding region from somewhere in the Middle
East. Farming spread to the Caucasus Mountains during the Neolithic period, and
later, Jewish populations also moved north into the region. Additional evidence
suggests that Mongols invaded the Caucasus area 800 years ago, leaving
descendants such as the Nogay.
Migrations from this region:
Despite its intermediate position between Eastern
Europe and the Middle East, the Caucasus region seems rarely to have been the
source of migrations.
Portrait of Genghis Khan, from an album depicting
several Yuan emperors, now located in the National Palace Museum in Taipei
Did You Know?
The Armenian city of Yerevan, founded in 782 B.C. as
the fortress Erebuni, has been continuously inhabited for almost 2,800 years.